Policy Studies

Authored by Jens von Bergmann and Nathan Lauster (MountainMath and UBC Sociology), this report explores what zoning might look like if it responded directly to underlying demand for housing — rather than restricting development through outdated low-density rules. Using Vancouver as a case study, the authors model how floor space ratios (FSRs) could be set to meet demand, reduce exclusion, and slow the costly “teardown cycle” that accelerates carbon emissions.

The paper highlights how zoning far below demand not only limits who can live in desirable areas, but also undermines long-term housing resilience. Recommendations call for forward-looking zoning that adapts to changing needs, expands supply, and supports climate goals.

Read how demand-based zoning could reshape housing policy for a more equitable, sustainable future.

Keywords: demand-based zoning; gentle density housing; zoning reform; floor space ratio; Vancouver housing policy; housing demand modelling; exclusionary zoning; teardown cycle; climate impact of zoning; MountainMath

Unlocking the Missing Middle: Harvard’s Three-Part Housing Series
The Joint Center for Housing Studies at Harvard is exploring how “missing middle” housing — the scale between single-family homes and mid-rise apartments — can help address the affordable housing crisis in Massachusetts and across the US. Ideal for urban and suburban infill, these housing types offer flexibility across life stages, budgets, and preferences, but face significant zoning, financing, and cultural barriers.

Part 1, Surveying Missing Middle Housing—Trends in the United States and Massachusetts, examines what these housing forms are, where they’re built, and the major obstacles and opportunities ahead.

Part 2 showcases policy solutions from states and municipalities successfully bringing missing middle housing to market.

The final part of the series will identify additional strategies and resources beyond zoning and regulatory policy—including financing, advocacy, construction innovation, and test fits—that are necessary for a robust middle housing market. Stay tuned for more on this.

Explore how research, policy, and practical supports can unlock diverse, affordable housing options.

Keywords: missing middle housing; gentle density housing; housing policy solutions; affordable housing United States; Massachusetts housing trends; urban infill housing; small-scale multi-unit housing; zoning reform; housing development barriers; Joint Center for Housing Studies Harvard

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Reframing the Challenge

CMHC’s latest report marks an important shift in how Canada understands and measures housing need. By focusing on restoring 2019-level affordability by 2035 and introducing a rolling 10-year planning horizon, the report provides a more grounded and practical view of the housing supply challenge.

It also outlines the scale of what’s required: nearly doubling annual housing starts, with a significant portion of that supply needed in the ownership market. These insights offer valuable context for anyone working to increase housing options within existing neighbourhoods—including through small-scale and homeowner-led development.

We encourage all Toolbox users to explore the report and understand the updated figures. It provides a timely and data-rich foundation for shaping local housing strategies.

Rethinking Housing: Exploring the Missing Middle

What stands between single-family homes and high-rise towers? The Missing Middle—a diverse mix of housing types that can meet the needs of households across incomes, ages, and sizes.

As part of CMHC’s Housing Supply Challenge, the University of Toronto’s School of Cities worked with 18 housing innovators across Canada to uncover what’s holding back gentle density—and how to scale it up. Their research, led by Dr. Carolyn Whitzman, dives into everything from accessory dwelling units and modular construction to zoning reform and financing tools that can unlock small-scale, affordable housing.

Case studies from Edmonton, Kelowna, and Kitchener highlight real-world approaches to enabling change. This resource also outlines practical policy levers, from ending exclusionary zoning to modernizing codes and simplifying approvals.

The webpage and tools are designed to spark ideas and support early-stage planning. Readers are encouraged to consult local policies and experts before applying these strategies in their own communities.

Explore the research and see how Canadian cities are building a more inclusive, sustainable housing future—one Missing Middle home at a time.

Unlocking the Missing Middle: Proven Practices for Affordable, Higher-Density Housing

The School of Cities, University of Toronto, presents a comprehensive report on enabling “Missing Middle” (MM) housing development—a key solution to Canada’s housing affordability and density challenges. This report explores proven and promising practices from Canada, the U.S., and New Zealand, offering actionable insights to overcome barriers and enhance reforms for MM housing.

What is Missing Middle Housing?

MM housing bridges the gap between single-family homes and high-rise buildings, encompassing:

Accessory Dwelling Units (ADUs): Small detached or attached homes.
Multiplexes: Multi-unit conversions of existing homes or purpose-built flats.
Small Apartment Buildings: Developments up to four storeys, often on a single lot.

Designed for households earning 51–120% of the area median household income (AMHI), MM also includes affordable options for low-income households through ADUs, rooming houses, and nonmarket housing. MM housing was once a staple of North American cities, offering compact, diverse housing types in central, well-serviced locations before exclusionary zoning and gentrification limited its availability.

Why Missing Middle Housing Matters

The benefits of MM housing are transformative:

Affordability: Smaller homes at moderate price points.
Diversity: A range of home sizes, from studio ADUs to four-bedroom apartments.
Accessibility: Proximity to public transit, amenities, and employment hubs.
Sustainability: Energy-efficient designs and reduced travel distances.

The Road Ahead

The report outlines barriers to MM development—legislative, administrative, and financial—and identifies enablers to support its growth. Drawing from case studies in Auckland and other cities, it demonstrates how increasing MM housing supply can reduce housing costs and improve access for low-income tenants.

📖 Discover how Missing Middle housing can reshape Canadian cities. Read the full report now to explore proven practices, global success stories, and actionable strategies to bring MM housing to life.

Explore how cities across Canada are embracing accessory dwelling units (ADUs) with the School of Cities, University of Toronto’s interactive ADU Tracker. Dive into charts and interactive maps that reveal the take-up of detached and attached ADUs in 16 major urban centres, alongside summaries of municipal and provincial policies shaping this housing innovation.

With federal Housing Accelerator Fund (HAF) investments boosting housing supply to address population growth and affordability, this tool offers insights into ADU trends, permitting data from 2014–2023, and policy analysis. From Toronto to Calgary, see how ADUs are shaping the future of housing—and learn how your city can do the same.

Developed by Ahmad Al-Musa, Priya Perwani, Muhammad Khalis Bin Samion, & Jeff Allen.

Unlocking Alberta’s Middle Housing Potential

In partnership with the Canadian Urban Institute and mddl, and funded by the Alberta Real Estate Foundation, this report dives into the transformative possibilities of middle housing in Alberta. From innovative strategies to overcome barriers to scaling production, to practical solutions for unlocking gentle density across the province, this collaboration is a must-read for anyone passionate about housing solutions. Curious about how middle housing could reshape Alberta’s communities?

Click through to discover the findings and recommendations shaping the future of attainable, diverse housing options!

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As housing affordability challenges escalate, an increasing number of middle-income renter households are facing cost burdens. In response, states and localities are implementing policies to address these needs. While these programs aim to expand affordable housing in high-cost areas, they face criticism for potentially diverting resources from lower-income households.

This new research paper from the Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies explores these middle-income housing initiatives, evaluating their goals, benefits, and the tradeoffs involved. By examining eleven state and local programs, the paper finds these initiatives are becoming more common across diverse regions, primarily focusing on expanding housing supply for the “workforce” based on area median income.

However, these programs often fall short of assisting the most cost-burdened renters, who are predominantly lower-income. Moreover, the demographic disparity, with middle-income renters being disproportionately white, raises concerns about reinforcing racial inequities.

The paper recommend designing middle-income housing programs that do not detract from resources for the lowest-income households, operate in areas where the market fails to serve middle-income renters, and provide additional benefits to lower-income communities. Read the full report to understand the complexities and potential solutions in addressing middle-income housing needs.

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In 2023, the Terner Center published “Making It Pencil: The Math Behind Housing Development” to assist policymakers in understanding the financial feasibility of large-scale, for-rent midrise apartment buildings. However, recent state and local land use reforms have focused on smaller-scale housing in lower-density neighborhoods, including accessory dwelling units (ADUs), duplexes, and fourplexes, often referred to as “missing middle” housing. States like California, Oregon, and Montana, along with cities such as Minneapolis and Portland, have introduced legislation and rules to promote this housing growth.

This policy paper employs the methodology from our 2023 report to analyze the development characteristics of missing middle projects. Through a series of project pro forma case studies across four California markets, the report finds that many missing middle housing types are not financially feasible, with four-unit ownership buildings being the most challenging to develop. Despite these challenges, missing middle housing can play a crucial role in providing entry-level homeownership and naturally affordable rental options. It is imperative for local and state policymakers to reexamine regulations that hinder the development of missing middle housing, such as lot size, parking, and insurance requirements.

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Nestled near the Elders Centre in the Tl’etinqox Community, six cabin-like homes are placed to form a circle to represent the four sacred directions, the cycle of the seasons, the cycle of life and more, and to encourage community gathering.

Tl’etinqox began to develop Elders Cabins in 2019 to honour the intentions, prayers, and needs of their Elders by providing safe and affordable living spaces for them to age in place, at the heart of the community. Elder tenancy applications opened for the cabins in September 2020.

Policy Studies

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What is Missing Middle Housing?

Why Missing Middle Housing Matters

The Road Ahead

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